Koumi, J. (2006). Designing Video and Multimedia for Open and Flexible Learning (First ed.). Oxon: Routledge

Koumi identifies three domains of video: 1) video that adds cognitive value or skills value (distinctive ways to assist learning and skills); 2) video that adds experiential value (providing vicarious experiences); and 3) video that adds nurturing value (nurturing, motivations, feelings)  (USE in LitRev)

Added value video techniques and teaching functions

i.                    Distinctive ways to assist LEARNING and SKILLS development

1.      Composite pictures

2.      Animated diagrams

3.      Visual metaphor/ symbolism / analogy

4.      Modelling

5.      Illustrating

6.      Condensing time

7.      Juxtaposition

8.      Narrative strength of TV’s rich symbol system

9.      Demonstration of skills

ii.                  Providing (vicarious) EXPERIENCES by showing otherwise inaccessible

1. dynamic pictoral change or movement

Places

Viewpoints

Technical

3d objects

Slow/fast motion

People / animals interacting, real or drama

One-off or rare events (include archive film)

Chronological sequence and duration

Resource-material for viewers to analyze

Staged events (e.g. complex experiments, dramatized enactments)

iii.                Nurturing

Determinations, feelings, attitudes

a.       Stimulate appetite to learn:

b.      Galvanize into action, provoke viewers to get up and do things

c.       Motivate use of a strategy by showing its success

Appreciations, feelings and attitudes:

d.      Alleviate isolation of the distant learner

e.       Change attitudes, appreciations, engender empathy for people

f.       Reassure, encourage self confidence

g.      Authenticate academic abstractions

Learning and the development of skills can be facilitated through nine media-distinctive techniques (see above) 7

These techniques include diagrammatic and real-life moving pictures with synchronous sound effects and commentary, camera moves, shot transitions, visual effects and chronological sequencing.

Viewers like animations and they say they learn from them. However, an attractive technique is a two-edged sword. Making viewers feel good (rather than bored) might stimulate learning. On the other hand they might fool themselves that they are learning just because learning just because they enjoy the animation.  14

Computer animations are enjoyed by both video producers and viewers. 15

There is precise control over what the learner experiences in pictures, speech sound effects, motion, pacing and sequence, which enables a tightly structured educational narrative. This applies more commonly to linear video tape than to video in multimedia, because narrative needs a substantial duration. However, some of the points under “Narrative strength” are relevant to the whole multimedia package rather than just to the video clips. E.g. in introductory text could signpost the next video clip. 27

Narrative strength derives from facilitating the viewer’s attention through educational narrative devices such as signpost, seed, variable pacing to clarify syntax, texture, allowing mental elbow room, picture-word synergy, varying format, mood, gravity, link, consolidate. 27

Incidentally, the demonstration of skill need not always be by an expert. There is value in learners video-recording their amateur performances for the purpose of self-analysis or for appraisal by the tutor (e.g. a dance performance or a trainee teacher’s classroom performance).  29

Physical skill. In a 20 second clip, an ice-skater, spinning on the spot, demonstrates that her spin quickens when she brings her arms in close to her body. 30

Inaccessible places: There are many information-rich locations that are inaccessible because of the danger involved, or the expense or the distance; video can take viewers on virtual trips, giving them the vicarious experiences. 36

Video is indispensable for many experiential provisions under the above categories although this has been disputed by some. For example, Laurillard (1993: 114) argues that experiential roles of video are just logistical, delivery roles … whereas given enough resources, the students would engage in these experiences directly. However, there will never be enough resources to take all students to farflung locations in helicopters or bathyspheres, or to restage the events for each new cohort of students, let alone to supply them with telephoto ayes, microscope eyes, heat-resistant eyes or slow/fast motion vision. Besides, many such field trips would take several days, whereas video can condense time and employ many other facilitating techniques. 45

Some such (virtual) experiences would need to be followed bup by real life (e.g. lab sessions), but the vicarious video experiences would provide valuable grounding/priming. 45

There are many nurturing functions for which video can play a distinctive role. This is because the rich symbol system of video provides substantial realism. 46

Galvanize viewers to get up and do something e.g. to filter and boil their water following a health campaign on TV. 48

Alleviate isolation of the distant learner: Note that the other categories involve imaginative exploitation of video’s vast range of presentational attributes, which usually necessitate the speaker being out of vision. In fact the term head and shoulders is often used to deride videos that show the presenter in vision, classifying this as static and unimaginative. Nevertheless, the occasional sight of a human presenter (not necessarily in all programmes of a series) can serve to humanise the medium. 50

There is the false impression that different media are all equally effective for all learning tasks –that there is equipotentiality of media. This claim has been propounded by some researchers on comparative efficacy of media. 57

The most serious flaw of the comparison studies is the methodology of the quasi-experimental controlled comparison, In this standard paradigm (derived from botanical experiments), some students experience the media lesson being tested and others do not. The students that do not are given an alternative experience; for example, the same content might be presented in a different medium. The two groups are then tested for any difference in performance on follow-up tasks, or more sensitively or differences between pre-test and post-test scores). Authors of such experiments –reported and endorsed by Clark (1983) insist we must compare like with like in the sense of ensuring that only the media being compared are different. All other aspects of the treatments, such as the nature of students in the comparison groups, learning environment, teaching method, teaching function, subject matter, time on task, are contrived to be identical, or at least counterbalanced. 58

Differences in viewing purpose. Clark (1983) and Kozma (1991) report several studies in which the perceived purpose of viewing TV a programme was manipulated: one group was told they would be tested on content while another was told to view for entertainment. The result, as expected, was that those who knew they could be tested learned better. These authors put such results down to differential amounts of invested mental effort. That is, students concentrate harder when they know they will be tested. 60

In general, since students are accustomed to watching TV for entertainment, they might find it difficult to concentrate on learning from TV unless they are told they will be tested on the material. 60

Each medium has its distinctive presentational attributes. 62

7 types of media characteristics:

1. Symbol system ( or presentational attributes)
2. Access  (the extent to which students are in a position ot use the medium for learning)
3. Controllability (how much influence can be exerted by students over the way they make use of the medium
4. Student reactivity – opportunities provided by the medium for student activity
5. Interactivity – an action by a student receives feedback from the medium
6. Adaptiviy – the medium is able to adapt its provision to suit an individual’s needs
7. Networking – the medium enables cooperation amon learners and between learners and teachers. 64

For television and video, and indeed for all media, we assume that production resources and staff expertise are adequate to get the best out of each medium. However the judgement of adequacy varies between different institutions. For example, as has been mentioned, a UK OU TV producer’s yearly load was between 6 and 8 half hour programmes. Koumi and Hung (1995) point out that this compares with more than 12 at the Indira Gandhi National OU in India and the Sikhotai Thammathirat OU in Thailand, more than 80 at the Chinese Radio and TV University and about 100 at Taiwan’s Open University. 72

Recorded video (usually with supplementary notes) designed to be viewed sin short segments. The contrast was made above between the suitability of print for concentrated study of non-stop video or TV for providing overviews and lower level processing of knowledge.73

3 types of video: self-standing, video-led, print led. 76

1. Self-standing video (non-stop viewing). A video that does all the teaching by itself  (a type sometimes referred to as long-form narrative)
2. Video-led print-video package. A package consisting of a scripted video plus printed video notes. All the teaching is done on the video by the commentary.
3. Print-led print-video package. Again, the video is in sections with interspersed questions. However instead of scripted scenes, the video contains actuality (actual behaviour) such as the interactions between a teacher and students. There is no commentary on the video.76

Screenwriting for video in educational multimedia: An overview of the pedagogic screenwriting principles. One fundamental principle of education is that teachers should endeavour to create an enduring fascination for the subject matter… Most educators accept that video can impart such fascination. However some believe that it cannot actually teach – that is, that it cannot achieve serious cognitive objectives, enabling viewers to learn concepts, principles, problem solving strategies and helping them to think critically. 95

Educational video producers and screenwriters are happiest if they can envisage their video provoking eureka experiences – viewers’ eyes lighting up with delighted revelation as they suddenly grasp a difficult concept. 95

The pedagogic framework of narrative screenwriting principles 97

a)      How will video be used

By whom	Target Audience
	Learning Context and complementary learning	Supplementary video notes
	Teaching intensions	Take viewers on a virtual field trip

b) Pedagogic screenwriting structure fore each chapter

	Hook	Shock close-up of moist human brain
	Signpost (information of what is coming	Scene@ four monkeys eating. Narration: lets concentrate in social behaviour
	Facilitate attentive viewing	Presenter says@ helium in this balloon, carbon dioxide in this one. What will happen when I release the balloons?
	Enable individual construction of knowledge	Don’t blanket the sot with words
	Sensitize	Timely occurrence of music
	Elucidate	Uncluttered, simplifying graphics
	Texture of the story	Vary mood, gravity
	Reinforce	Repetition from a different angle
	Consolidate	Summarize key features
	Link	Link to next chapter.

Comment: this framework is for producing documentary-type videos

Target audience characteristics. The manner in which objectives are disclosed to students should not prejudice the requirement that the video design must be tied to the objectives. Furthermore to ensure that the video meets the objectives, it is also necessary to know the characteristics of the target audience. 123

learning context and complementary learning. … the broadcast notes contain pre-work in order to prepare the primary target audience for the TV programme. Hence the amount of information and its rate of delivery can be higher than for an unitiated primary audience. 124

teaching intensions Intended cognitive learning outcomes / objectives

Lazy thinking could result in using video for a task that under-utilises the potential of video, for example, a task that could have been achieved with audiovision, at a moch lower cost. 131

Are you inventing learning objectives to justify using video? Having chosen learning tasks for which video is suitable and then written a meticulous screenplay, there is still the question of whether the tasks are central to the curriculum. Do not invent objectives that are peripheral to the course objectives just because TV can achieve the objectives effectively. The academic content must come first. 131

Visual metaphors for abstract processes in effect suggest the teacher’s imagery to students. Learners can choose to incorporate this imagery into their knowledge structures –thereby supplanting other, ineffectual mental processes, as suggested by Salomon (1983).